france

Bibliography
Inventaire Général des Sources Documentaires sur les Acadiens. (Universit‚ de Moncton)
Beaulieu & Morley, La Province de Québec
Dionne, Les Canadiens-Fran‡ais: origine des familles
Tanguay, Dictionnaire généalogique des familles canadiennes
Tanguay, Complément au dictionnaire généalogique Tanguay
Jette, Dictionnaire gén‚alogique des familles du Québec
R‚pertoire des actes de baptˆme, mariage, septure et des rencensements du Québec ancien Ancien Regime
Census Tables for the French Colony of Louisiana From 1699 - 1732.
The Coming of the French Revolution
Dictionary of Canadian Biographies
Dictionnaire National des Canadiens Francais
French Canadians, The vol.1&2
Genealogie des Familles de Terrebonne
Genealogies des Familles de Saint-Simon, 1600-1900
Huguenot Ancestry
La France Moderne-Grand Dictionnaire Genealogique
La Noblesse aux Etats de Bourgogne de 1350 a 1789
Le Grand Arrangement des Acadiens au Quebec
Le livre d'or du Lyonnais
Albert Dauzat, Les Noms de Famille de France
Puymege, Les Vieux Noms de France
Michel Vincent, Noms de Famille Familles de Noms
Nobiliaire de France
Nos Origines en France
Nos Origines en France
Nouvelle Biographie Generale 1850-1860
Quebec and Its Historians
Repertoire des Mariages de L'lle D'Orleans, 1500-1900
Richelieu's Desmarets and the Century of Louis XIV
Les annulaires de Paris, de Montréal et de Sherbrooke.
La noblesse aux états de Bourgogne de 1350 à 1789
Falaise Roll by Chrispin & Macary
Pedigies of some of the Emperor Charlemagne's descendants
Origine of some Anglo Norman Families by Loyd
La noblesse de la France (Ref)
The Longman Compagnion to the French Revolution

Terms of Professions
Noms de Profession:
Français = Anglais
abbé = abbot
accapareur = monoploist, hoarder (esp of grain)
administrateur (d'une faillite) = receiver and manager
agent national = direct representative of central government at district and municipal levels
aide de camp = aide-de-camp
Ancien = member of the `Council of Elders'
arrondissement = district
assermentés = priests who had sworn the oath of allegiance
avocat-général = deputy prosecutor in a parliament
basoche, bazoche = body of clerks attached to the parliaments of Paris and some other provincial cities.
bureaucrate = office worker, functionary
capitouls = municipal magistrates of Toulouse
chanteuse d'opéra = opera singer
chancellier = chancellor
chef, directeur du personnel = personel manager
chef de bataillon = major
chirurgien esthétique = plastic surgeon
closier = economically dependant peasant
commissaire = superintendant, police chief, representatif, commissary
commissaire aux accaparements = local commissioners entrusted with the execution of law
commissaires aux armées = political commissaries
commissaires du pouvoir exécutif = functionnaries entrusted with general surveillance of the execution of legislation
commune = village or town
comptable agréé = chartered accountant
comte = count
couturier = fashion designer
curé = parish priest
dauphin = son and presumptive heir of the king of France
département = department
designer = interior designer
directeur commercial = sales manager
directeur général = general manager
directeur, gérant = manager
duc = duke
échevin = principal county magistrat
économiste = economist
écuyer = squire
endocrinologist = endocrinologue
exécuteur = executor
exécutif (d'affaires) = (business) executive
habitant = resident
homme politique = politician
hommes d'armes = men-at-armes
intendant = intendant (agent du pouvoir royal, investi d'attributions illimitées dans une ou plusieurs provinces.) There is one in each généralité.
journalier = day labourer
juge de paix = Justice of the Peace
maître des requêtes = select group of venal lawyers and bureaucrats, from whose ranks major royal administrators (councillors of state, intendants, ect) were drawn.
manoeuvrier, manouvrier = day labourer
maréchal, aux = (armée française) marshal (of France); (armée britannique) field marshal
maréchal de camp = brigadier
maréchal des logis = sergant (artillary, cavarlry ect)
maréchal des logis-chef = battery or squadron sergeant-major
maréchal-ferrant = blacksmith
marquis = marquis
médecin = physician, medical practitioner
menuisier = carpenter
municipalité = administrators (mayor, ect) of each commune.
ouvriers = workers
pharmacien = pharmacist
prévot = provost, provost marshal
préfet de police = police chief, commisionner
prieur = prior
procureur = attorney, procuator
procureur du roi = royal officials attatched to themain financial and judicial bodies and responsible for protecting the crown's interests.
procureur-général-syndic = elected officials who from 1790 were attached to the administration of each departement and who represented the juridicial power and ensured the application of laws. They were replaced by commissaires du pouvoir exécutif.
procureur-syndic = official opperating at district level
producteur délégué = executive producer
psychologue = psychologist
rapporteur = member of a committee or council entrusted with presenting business.
représentants du peuple = members of the National Assembly in the 1790's.
représentants en mission = deputies sent to rally the provinces and supervise the war effort. Those attached to the armies were also refered to as représentants aux armées.
robin = magistrat, high state functionary
roturier = commoner
sectionnaires = politically active members of the Paris sections.
seigneur = lord
sieur = master
suppléant = subtitute deputies to the EG and to successive legislatures
syndic = representaive of a parish, a corporation, ect, who defended the interests of the community in question before the law.
trésoriers de France = officials grouped normally into a bureau de finances in each généralité which had jurisdiction over a wide range of financial matters.
varlet = valet, page du roi
vicaire = assistant to the curé in a parish
vice president = vice-président

Terms of Profession (English -> French)
Terms of Profession (English to French)
abbot = abbé
administrators (mayor, ect) of each commune. = municipalité
aide de camp = aide-de-camp
attorney, procuator = procureur
blacksmith = maréchal-ferrant
brigadier = maréchal de camp
carpenter = menuisier
chancellor = chancellier
commissaries (political) = commissaires aux armées
commoner = roturier
count = comte
day labourer = journalier, manoeuvrier, manouvrier
duke = duc
economist = économiste
endocrinologist = endocrinologue
executive (business) = exécutif (d'affaires)
executive producer = producteur délégué
executor = exécuteur
fashion designer = couturier
functionnaries entrusted with general surveillance of the execution of legislation = commissaires du pouvoir exécutif
general manager = directeur général
intendant = intendant (agent du pouvoir royal, investi d'attributions illimitées dans une ou plusieurs provinces.) There is one in each généralité.
interior designer = designer
Justice of the Peace = juge de paix
lord = seigneur
magistrate, high state functionary = robin
manager = directeur, gérant
marquis = marquis
marshal of France, field marshal = maréchal
master = sieur
men-at-armes = hommes d'armes
monoploist, hoarder (esp of grain) = accapareur
municipal magistrates of Toulouse = capitouls
office worker, functionary = bureaucrate
opera singer = chanteuse d'opéra
peasant (economically dependant) = closier
personel manager = chef, directeur du personnel
pharmacist = pharmacien
physician, medical practitioner = médecin
plastic surgeon = chirurgien esthétique
police chief = préfet de police
politician = (homme) politique
principal county magistrat = échevin
priest (parish) = curé
prior = prieur
psychologist = psychologue
receiver and manager = administrateur (d'une faillite)
resident = habitant
sales manager = directeur commercial
sergeant (artillery, cavalry, ect) = maréchal des logis
sergeant-major (battery or squadron) = maréchal des logis-chef
squire = écuyer
superintendant, police chief, representatif, commissary = commissaire
valet, page du roi = varlet
vice president = vice-président
workers = ouvriers

Reference Terms (English -> French)
accepter une terre comme un hommage = to accept the land as a mark or token of gratitude
Ancien Régime = Ancien Régime
anobli = recently ennobled commoner
Après J.-C. = A.D.
armées révolutionnaires = `people's armies' reorganized as the gendarmerie in 1790.
arrondissement = (Admin) district, one of 12 administative subdivisions of Paris introduced in the Autumn of 1795, and replacing the 48 sections which had existed since 1790.
canton = canton, district; administrative subdivision of the departement between district and commune levels
chef-lieu = administrative capital (of a departement, district,etc.).
commune = the smallest administrative unit, approximately equivalent to a parish
département = departement, region
districts = electorial divisions of Paris, 60 in number, created for elections to the EG
évêché = (region) bishopric
faubourgs = suburbs, or, as in Paris, former suburbs
municipalité = administrators (mayor, ect) of each commune.
sections = the 48 units of local governement, replacing the 60 districts of 1789-1790, into which Paris was divided
seigneurie = seigneurie: conventionally divided into domaine, containing manorhouse, main farm buildings ect; and the censives, land ownwd by peasants under seigneurial obligations.
assemblées primaires = `primary assemblies'
assemblées provinciales = `provincial assemblies'
attribuer = allouer qqch à qqn dans un partage
Avant J.-C. = B.C.
baillage, sénéchaussée = royal courts
banalités = much detested seigneurial monopolies, under which peasants were obliged to use their seigneur's mill, oven, wine-press, ect, in return for payment.
biens nationaux, eccésiastiques, dominaux, des émigrés = `national lands': nationalized property of the church
canton = canton, district; administrative subdivision of the departement between district and commune levels
la Chambre = the House
Chambre des Communes = `House of Commons'
chef-lieu = administrative capital (of a departement, district,ect.).
commune = the smallest administrative unit, approximately equivalent to a parish
Commune = municipal government of Paris
Conseil du roi = king's council. Its main subcommittees were also sometimes given this title, notably the Comité des dépêches which handled prov business, petitions and dispatches, and the Comité des finances.
conseil exécutif (provisoire) = council of ministers
Grand Conseil = sovereign jurisdiction charged with settling disputes between parliament
Cour plénière = `Plenary Court'
cour souveraine = the sovereign courts were in theory those which judged without appeal
croisé = crusade
département = departement, region
de haute/basse extraction = of noble/mean extraction or descent, of high/low birth
districts = electorial divisions of Paris, 60 in number, created for elections to the EG
état civil = registry, and registration, of births, marriages, and deaths which became a state monopoly by the law Etats généraux = the Estates General
évêché = (region) bishopric
extraction (de haute/basse) = of noble/mean extraction or descent, of high/low birth
faire ses preuves en 1711 = to reaffirm a families' title of nobility in 1711
faubourgs = suburbs, or, as in Paris, former suburbs
franc-fief = `franc-fee': payment to the crown by any commoner purchasing a seigneurie
Grand'Chambre = most senior and most prestigious chamber of the chamber of the Paris parliament which dealt with all priority business
Grand Conseil = sovereign jurisdiction charged with settling disputes between parliament
faire remonter la famille à = to trace a family back to
fief = fief; feudal term signifying a seigneurie or any noble property
généralité = main fiscal and administrative unit of France
grenier à sel = storehouses for salt
greniers d'abondance = grain warehouses
habitant = resident of a county/city
maréchaussée = paramilitary mounted police force
métayage = sharecropping
Midi = the south of France
municipalité = administrators (mayor, ect) of each commune.
noblesse d'épée = the old `sword nobility', which had allegedly won its noble status through feats of combat
noblesse de cloche = individuals who had achieved noble status through municipal office (e.g. in Paris, Toulouse).
noblesse de robe = individuals whose noble status derived from office in the royal bureaucracy.
présidial =tribunal d'Appel pour des baillage ordinaires = Court of Appeal
ramifier = to branch (a family) not "brancher"
récompenser des terres/ pour des services
remonter = to trace back
résident = diplomat or a person living in a country other than their country of origin
sections = the 48 units of local governement, replacing the 60 districts of 1789-1790, into which Paris was divided
seigneurie = seigneurie: conventionally divided into domaine, containing manorhouse, main farm buildings ect; and the censives, land ownwd by peasants under seigneurial obligations.
sénéchaussée = voir baillage
titré = conféré un titre de noblesse à quelqu'un
tribunes = public gallaries

Bretons

The Bretons were originally from the ancient province of Brittany, which lies in the northwestern peninsula of France. Formerly known as Armorica, a possession of the Roman Empire, this land consists of a plateau with a deeply indented coastline, and is broken by hills in the west. However, the region was renamed Britannia Minor by the Romans, following the emigration of six thousand Britons across the English Channel, an event which took place at the behest of the Roman commander in Britain.

Originally of Celtic stock, the Bretons were mainly composed of three tribes from Cornwall and south Wales who were known as the Veniti, the Curiovolitae, and the Asismii. Their leader, Prince Cowan of Powys was married to the sister of St. Patrick and was considered to have been the most ancient Christian king in Europe. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, and subsequent invasion of Britain by the Angles and the Saxons during the 5th and 6th centuries, many more Britons fled their ancient home. Many settled in the continental region of Brittany, where the race that came to be known as the Bretons flourished.

The Celtic traditions of the Bretons, particularly the Brythonic language, which is still spoken in the west of Brittany, sharply contrasted them with the many other diverse peoples who helped to found modern France. This is particularly true of their neighbors in the adjacent region of Normandy, who were the descendants of Viking raiders. Nevertheless, the Bretons played a significant role in the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Led by Earl Alan of Richmond, the Bretons constituted one-third of the Norman forces at the Battle of Hastings.

Many of these Breton knights were granted considerable land-holdings by William the Conqueror in return for their services. The Domesday Book survey of 1086, shows them dispersed widely throughout England, with a significant number settled in the region known as East Anglia. A very large number of Breton surnames ultimately find their origin with these Breton knights. However, it is indisputable that a genuine migration from Brittany to England also took place. Bretons came to hold important positions in the Norman nobility of England, and the dukes of Brittany forged alliances through arranged marriages with the kings of Scotland.

Over the course of the next few centuries, England came into increasing conflict with France, culminating in the outbreak of the Hundred Years War in 1337. Brittany, like many other French regions, changed hands frequently over the course of the century-long conflict. Brittany was united to the French crown through the marriage of Anne of Brittany and King Charles VIII in 1491, and was finally annexed in 1532, although a separatist movement thrives in that area to this day.

Brittany: Origins

Ancient Brittany was inhabited by the Celtic Tribes of Veneti, Curiovolitae, and the Asismii in the 3rd century BC. At this time, Brittany was known as Armorica. It was the Romans that renamed the region Britannia Minor. However, the region's current name can primarily be attributed to the Roman General Maximus, who brought over 6,000 Britons under their leader Prince Conan, son of the King of Wales and Albany as he left Britain in the 4th century. Further immigrants from Wales and Cornwall occupied the region in the 5th and 6th region. From these people came Constantine, King of Brittany, who, it is said, was the grandfather of the celebrated King Arthur of England. The Celtic Breton language is still spoken today in the western reaches of the land.

In the 6th century, Brittany began its many associations with other states and sovereigns as the Dukes of Brittany also became the Counts of Cornwall in the south west of England. In the 9th century, the Dukes of Anjou, neighbors to the south, married the Princesses of Brittany. Then, in the 10th century, the Dukes of Brittany also married into the house of the Dukes of Normandie, and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany married Hawise, daughter of Richard II, Duke of Normandie, in 1002.

These various associations helped lead to the conflict between the Kings of England and the Kings of France for absolute rule over Brittany. When William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, became King of England in 1066 he claimed Brittany and Normandy as possessions of the English crown. This English possession of continental lands increased when King Henry of England married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, thereby acquiring most of north and western France. However, in 1365, Brittany renewed relations with France, and was finally annexed by the French Crown in 1532, and reverted to a duchy.

Charlamagne

The greatest of the Frankish rulers, Charlemagne brought a new ideal of kingship to Europe that had a tremendous influence long after his own empire crumbled. The kingdom of the Franks was one of the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms of the Dark Ages. Founded after the fall of the Roman Empire, it included much of modern-day France, Germany, and the Netherlands, along with all of Belgium and Switzerland. Shortly before his death in 768 AD, Pepin the Short divided his kingdom between his sons Charles and Carloman. However, Carloman died only three years afterward and left Charles as sole king of the Franks.

Charles was both an ambitious ruler and an effective one and within his own lifetime, he became known as Charles the Great, a title also rendered as Carolus Magnus and the more familiar Charlemagne. Charlemagne perceived himself as being the heir to both the ancient kings of Troy and the great Roman emperors, claiming actual descent from the former and reviving the ideals and administrative principles of the latter. Additionally, Charlemagne embarked on an extensive campaign of military activity and expanded the Frankish kingdom to include Bavaria, Lombardy, Corsica, and Saxony, and virtually doubled the amount of territory controlled by the Franks to include most of Europe.

Yet, Charlemagne was more than simply a warrior-king. Although he was himself illiterate, Charlemagne had a fine appreciation for learning and surrounded himself with scholars at his court at Aachen. At the palace school, the scribes were responsible for preserving a great amount of Latin literature. Furthermore, Charlemagne cultivated diplomatic relations with many important figures. This was particularly true of the Pope Hadrian I and Charlemagne made several important pilgrimages to Rome to foster harmonious relations with the papacy. On Christmas day of 800 AD, Pope Hadrian I crowned Charlemagne emperor of what would later be called the Holy Roman Empire. Nonetheless, Charlemagne's extensive empire did not last long. After his death it was divided among the heirs of his son Louis the Pious. This was first done at the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD, and again in 855 AD.

Perhaps Charlemagne's most lasting contribution to European society was his idea that a king should rule over both the state and the church. Charlemagne saw it as his right and duty to administer divine law over all Christians and to maintain authority over the workings of the Church. This conception of rulership, though surviving in the Byzantine Empire, had not been seen in Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire. By entwining the spheres of power and influence of the empire and the papacy, Charlemagne sowed the seeds for a power struggle between these two institutions which would last throughout the Middle Ages.

France, Quebec: Filles de Roi

The filles du roi, or King's girls, were women who were recruited by the French Crown to populate New France. In the 16th century, the French colonies were populated almost exclusively by men. Initially, the French Crown selected orphan girls, but they later recruited young healthy girls. In the mid-17th century, French ships carried hundreds of these women, who were often not over the age of 16, to Quebec. The king even provided "dowries" to the women, which consisted of clothing and household supplies. The women usually chose their husbands within two weeks of their arrival in the New World.

Origin of French Language

The French language was developed from the vernacular Latin of the Roman Empire, and is divided into three historic and linguistic periods: Old French, which developed before the 14th century; Middle French, which was used between the 14th and 16th centuries; and Modern French, which was used after the 16th century and continues to be in use today. During all of these periods, the French language was heavily influenced by other languages.

For example, Old French was infused with Germanic words and sounds when barbarian tribes invaded and settled in France after the fall of the Roman Empire. Middle French also borrowed heavily from the Italian language during the Renaissance. The close proximity of both Germany and Italy also allowed for a great transmigration of linguistic and cultural practices.

Hugenots2

The Huguenots were Calvinist Protestants in France who faced an enormous amount of persecution during the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries. In the late 16th century, the number of Huguenots in France increased significantly and their rivalry with the Catholics led to the Wars of Religion, which lasted from 1562 until 1598.

In 1572, large numbers of Huguenots were massacred in Paris on the orders of Queen Catherine de Medici. However, the Huguenots triumphed when the Protestant Henry IV succeeded to the throne in 1598. In the same year the Edict of Nantes was passed and it officially guaranteed religious toleration. Nevertheless, persecution continued and the Edict was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685. At this point, many Huguenots migrated to England.

The first Huguenot names appeared in England after the 16th century, when this group of French Protestants began to leave France to seek refuge in Protestant countries. The Huguenots flooded into Protestant England in the 17th century, when religious persecution intensified at home. The Huguenots, who possessed great commercial and industrial skills, settled in English manufacturing towns, where they were instrumental to the production of crystal, paper, cutlery, watches, and precision instruments. After they were welcomed into England, Huguenot names began to appear in increasingly large numbers in documents such as the Curia Regis Rolls, The Pipe Rolls, the Hearth Rolls, the Treaty of Limerick, parish registers, baptismals and tax records.

The Huguenots were fervently loyal to the Crown during the era of Cromwell. They were overwhelmingly Methodist, and were supporters of the "Glorious Revolution" which led to the long series of Jacobite uprisings by the supporters of the Catholic King James II. Many of the Huguenots signed undertakings to remain Protestant and migrated to Ireland to settle on lands confiscated from Catholics during the Plantation of Ulster.

The open spaces and untamed frontiers of North America attracted many Huguenots in search of adventure and property. Many Huguenot families migrated to the New World on the armada of sailing ships which were romantically known as the White Sails, but were often referred to as coffin ships. As a result of the harsh conditions on the overcrowded ships, the majority of the immigrants arrived in the New World diseased, famished, and destitute from the long journey across the stormy Atlantic. After risking the perilous journey across the oceans to the newly discovered lands in North America, the Huguenot settlers realized that the New World was not the paradise they had expected. Many settlers made their way west from their port of entry, joining the wagon trains traveling to the prairies or to the west coast.

The great era of English migration to Canada began after the Seven Years War, when Canada was ceded to the British. Following the American War of Independence, many Huguenot settlers migrated from the United States into Canada. These families, who were known as United Empire Loyalists moved into Nova Scotia and the St. Lawrence and Niagara regions. Huguenot families have made a valuable contribution to the settlement of North America and to the development of the cultures of the United States and Canada.

Langedoc

The region of Languedoc was named after the dialect used in that region: Langue d'oc means the language that uses oc for yes. The major rival to this particular French dialect was the northern langue d'oïl, which means the language that uses oïl for yes. Languedoc as a region included the southeastern portion of the Massif Central, a plateau in the south of France, and ran from the province of Roussillon, in the west, to the Rhône River, forming the border with Provence, in the east. Toulouse was one of the most important counties in the region as it held the capital of the region, which was also called Toulouse.

Languedoc was eventually annexed by France in 1271. Early in this century, Rome, under Pope Innocent II, condemned a Christian sect called the Albigenses, whose theology was based on Manichaean dualism. Innocent declared the sect heretical because it denied the divinity of Christ and the Incarnation, and because they came to have much influence over the southern part of France. The Albigenses were largely based in the Languedoc region. Pope Innocent II founded the Dominican Order to combat them. The Pope's crusade against this sect developed into a general civil war between the north and the south of France, resulting in the defeat of the south. The langue d'oc was then suppressed and so the langue d'oïl became the dominant language of France and the ancestor of Modern French.

Napoleon

Following the chaos of the French Revolution, the nation of France was in dire need of a stable form of government which would continue the program of modernization begun by the revolutionaries. Ironically, the nation that had rose up against its absolute monarch was now in need of an autocratic ruler. The man destined to fulfill this role was Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled as first Consul after the coup d'état that thrust him to power in 1799, and as Emperor after 1804. His reign was an era of far-reaching social and political change for France. Education and local government were reorganized, the currency of France was stabilized, and a new legal system known as the Code Napoléon was instituted.

However, Napoleon is better remembered for his aggressive foreign policy. Displaying a rarely-paralleled military genius in more than a decade of continuous war, he brought all of continental Europe under French control by 1808. Nevertheless, his empire was not indestructible. The French conceded naval supremacy to the British after their defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The Peninsular War (1808-1814) further showed the vulnerability of the French. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 proved disastrous. Weakened by that defeat, Napoleon's armies were unable to stand up to the combined forces of the other European powers at the Battle of the Nations in 1813. Napeolon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to the island of Elba. However, he soon escaped and attempted to restore his empire during the campaign known as the "Hundred Days". This dream was destroyed forever when Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, and was exiled to the island of St. Helena.

Napoleon was popularly portrayed as a champion of liberalism and nationalism, a child of the French Revolution. While this may seem at odds with his dictatorial style of rule and his imperial ambitions, it is incontrovertible that he was one of history's greatest military tacticians and conquerors.

Normandy

In the 1st century BC, Normandy saw one of its first great invasions by the Romans. The area was an important part of the Holy Roman Empire until the 4th century. In the 9th century, the area received its name of Normandy after it was raided by the Vikings, or Norsemen, from whom it took its name.

When Rollo, Earl of Orkney, invaded the territory in 911, he forced the French King, Charles III, or Charles the Simple, to concede Normandy. Rollo, then, became the first Duke of Normandy. In 1066, William, a descendant of Rollo, conquered England, thereby initiating England's claims to the area. The region passed into the royal dynasty of Plantagenet, in the 12th century, and England expanded its claims to continental land when Henry II of England, Duke of Normandy, married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152.

The failure of Philippe Auguste of France to gain possession of Normandy from the English Plantagenets in the following years became one of the primary causes of the Hundred Years War. The people and landscape of Normandy suffered dearly from this long conflict. Normandy was, however, finally secured by France in 1450 and became a semi-autonomous state. Normandy was again the site of heavy fighting in the twentieth century as the Allied forces invaded the region in 1944.

Anjou

The former province of Anjou encompasses areas of southern Armorica, Indre-et-Loire, and Sarthe. Today, area once covered by the province is part of the Maine-et-Loire department. Anjou's capital city was Angers.

In ancient times, the area was populated by the Gallic Andecave Celts, but Anjou was conquered around 50 BC by the Romans and again later by the Franks.

Count Robert le Fort became head of the province in 870, and was followed by an unbroken line to the Count of Anjou who joined the first Crusade to Jerusalem in 1131. When he married Mattilda of England the Count acquired the title and lands of the Duke of Normandy in 1154. His son Henry became King of England. Henry married Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France. Eleanor's marriage transferred a large part of France into English possession.

Anjou passed from the English crown back to a French possession in 1205. The reinstated Dukes of Anjou held the family name Plantagenet, a name also borne by the Kings of England at that time.

King Louis VII held Anjou and Maine from about 1205. He was succeeded by Charles 1st, King of France who founded the second Royal House of Anjou. On his marriage in Provence in 1266, Charles acquired the Duchy of Naples. His granddaughter brought Anjou to Charles' brother, Philippe la Belle Plantagenet of France. But in 1302 Philippe IV established the States General, removing much of the power of the local nobility, and asserted himself over the Church and removing that office to Avignon in 1309. In 1328, Charles, son of Philippe de Valois, united the province with the Crown of France.

In later years, the Royal Princes of France used the title Duke de Anjou. The Duke also reigned over Sicily, Naples and Provence, and later over Hungary, Poland and Constantinople. In 1487, Anjou was secured once and for all as by the French Crown.

Auverge

Auvergne is a region in the Central Massif of south central France. The Auvergne Mountains, a branch of the Cevennes range, are renowned as the highest peaks in the French interior.

The territory of Auvergne extends up to the regions of Cantal and Puy-de-Dome and also includes small parts of Allier, Aveyron, and of Haute-Loire. Its capital is Gergovie.

Champagne

Champagne is a former province of France, located in the northeast part of the country on the west bank of the River Meuse. Its main city is Troyes, and it is one of France's celebrated wine regions. In ancient times, the area was ruled by the Counts of Champagne.

The Romans overran Champagne and most other areas of France in the 1st century BC. In the 5th century, it was conquered again, this time by the Franks.

In the 10th century Gueringfroi, who became the first Lord of Aumale, built the Castle of Aumale. His family later became the Counts of Champagne. In 1053, this royal house intermarried with that of the Counts of Pictou. The child of this marriage, Adelaide, married the then Count of Champagne. Around 1055, the count also held the titles of Sire de Aumale and Lord of Aumale. In 1066, he pledged his allegiance to William, Duke of Normandy as part of the epochal conquest of England. Eudes, Count of Champagne, attended the Duke of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings.

Champagne comprised the regions of Aube, La Marne, Haute Marne, the Ardennes, and the Yonne. It was given in the 10th century to the House of Vernandois. Champagne was then re-united with the French Crown in 1191 by Philippe Auguste.

Modern Champagne is one of the most vital economic and cultural regions of France, as well as the birthplace of the drink that carries its name.

Forez

Forez is a former administrative region of France found on the west bank of the Rhone river and extending to the Alps. The ancient tribes of the area were the Ligures, Celts, and Massaliotes.

Forez began as a province of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC. Its capital at that time was the town of Montbrisson. Under Roman rule, the region enjoyed great prosperity.

The Franks invaded Forez in the 5th century, and divided it into two territories. Later, the area was reunited by the Merovingians.

In the 12th century, the northern and southern parts of Forez split again, forming separate trading regions and revitalizing the area's economy. In the 14th century, development of the transport system linking Forez to St Germain-Laval, and north to Nevers brought even greater prosperity.

The Counts of Bourbon acquired sovereignty over Forez in 1372 and the House of Bourbon maintained its rule for the next two centuries.

Forez was reunited with the Crown of France in 1527 by Francois I. The area suffered greatly from the religious conflicts of 1562-1598 as the traditional Roman Church and the Reformed Church struggled for control. The Roman Church and the Huguenots of the Reformed Church were constantly in conflict one with the other in the province.

Today, with its vibrant populous, rich farmlands, and solid manufacturing base, Forez is a vital part of the French culture and economy.

Gascogne

The region of Gascogne in southwest France, known to Anglophones as Gascony, is bounded by the Bay of Biscay, the Garonne River, and the Pyrenees. During the Roman occupation, between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, Gascogne was ruled from neighboring Aquitaine. In 418, the Visigoths took the region, but under the leadership of Clovis, who conquered Alaric II in 507, it was reunited to the French kingdom. Gascogne was again conquered in the 5th century-this time by the Franks.

In the next century, yet another invading force overthrew the area. The region took its name from these conquerors, the Vascones. In the 9th century, the duchy of Gascogne was reunited with the duchy of Aquitaine.

In 1154, Gascogne was included with the possessions of Eleanor of Aquitaine on her marriage to Henry II, the Plantagenet King of England, and became part of the English dominion. In 1259, it was confirmed to England by Louis IX, but returned to France shortly afterward.

In 1360, Gascogne returned to English rule under the Treaty of Brittany, signed by King Charles V. The territories of Aquitaine, Ponthieu, and Calais, as well as an enormous ransom, were included in the deal. After Charles VII of vanquished the English in 1453, Gascogne was ceded to France for the last time.

Limousin

The French province of Limousin was divided into three departments, Correze, Creuse, and Upper Vienne, with the capital being Lioges. Limousin corresponds to the ancient provinces of La Marche and Limousin together.

In 50 BC, the Romans overthrew the resident tribes of the Gallic Celts, Ligures and Iberes to gain control of Limousin. It was Christianized in the 3rd century along with the rest of the Roman Empire.

In the 6th and 7th centuries, under the rule of Clotaire II and his son, Dagobert I, the people of Limousin defended themselves against the invasion of the brutal Visigoths.

In the 10th century, Limousin was divided into several seigneuries including Marche, Combrailles, Limoges, Turenne, and Ventadour. All were part of the great Duchy of Aquitaine, which was endowed to England by Eleanor of Aquitaine when she married Henry II, King of England. From the 14th century, the region became part of northern France again, and it was reunited with the Royal Kingdom as a province in the 17th century.

During its long history, Limousin has always been a vital French economic region, producing, at different times, porcelain, tapestries, and arms.

Kings of the Franks and France
Merovech 447-458
Childeric I 458-481
Clovis I 481-511
Childebert I 511-558
Theuderic I 511-534
Chlodomer 511-524
Chlothar I 511-561
Charibert 561-567
Guntram 561-593
Chilperic I 561-584
Sigebert I 561-575
Clothar II 584-628
Dagobert I 628-638
Clovis II 638-657
Sigebert II 634-656
Clothar III 656-668
Childeric II 668-673
Theuderic III 673-691
Dagobert II 675-679
Clovis III 691-695
Childebert II 695-711
Dagobert III 711-715
Chilperic II 715-721
Theuderic IV 721-737
Childeric III 743-752
Pepin the Short 752-768
Charlemagne 768-814
Louis I the Pious 814-840
Charles II the Bald 843-877
Louis II the Stammerer 877-879
Louis III 879-882
Carloman 882-884
Charles III the Fat 884-888
Odo Count of Paris 888-898
Charles III the Simple 898-922
Robert I Count of Paris 922-923
Rudolf Duke of Burgundy 923-936
Louis IV the Foreigner 936-954
Lothair 954-986
Louis V 986-987
Hugh Capet 987-996
Robert II the Pious 996-1031
Henry I 1031-1060
Philip I 1060-1108
Louis VI the Fat 1108-1137
Louis VII 1137-1180
Philip II Augustus 1180-1223
Louis VIII the Lion 1223-1226
Louis IX, Saint-Louis 1226-1270
Philip III the Bold 1270-1285
Philip IV the Fair 1285-1314
Louis X 1314-1316
Philip V the Tall 1316-1322
Charles IV the Fair 1322-1328
Philip VI 1328-1350
John II the Good 1350-1364
Charles V the Wise 1364-1380
Charles VI the Fool 1380-1422
Charles VII the Victorious 1422-1461
Louis XI the Spider 1461-1483
Charles VIII 1483-1498
Louis XII of Orleans 1498-1515
Francis I 1515-1547
Henry II 1547-1559
Francis II 1559-1560
Charles IX 1560-1574
Henry III 1574-1589
Henry IV of Bourbon 1589-1610
Louis XIII 1610-1643
Louis XIV the Sun King 1643-1715
Louis XV 1715-1774
Louis XVI 1774-1792
Napoleon I 1804-1815
Louis XVIII 1814-1824
Charles X 1824-1830
Louis Philippe 1830-1848
Napoleon III 1852-1870

Savoie - early Origins

Savoie in southeastern France corresponds to the provinces of La Savoie and of the Haute-Savoie (Upper Savoie). In the 4th century the term Sapaudia emerged which was translated as Savoie. In the 6th century the Franks invaded the region. The annexation of Piémont in the 11th century and the occupation of Geneva and Montferrat considerably increased Savoie status as a state, although the Duchy underwent a period of decline from 1434 to 1553. After much erosion of its territorial boundaries it was finally returned to the sovereignty of France under the treaty of Turin in 1860.